The Milesian School

1. Thales

• Belief: Argued that water is the primary element and principle of all things.
• Argument: Based on the observation that life is sustained by moisture and that heat itself seems to originate from and require moisture.

1. Anaximander

• Belief: Introduced the concept of ‘Apeiron’ (the indefinite or infinite) as the fundamental principle.
• Argument: Proposed that the world emerged from this undefined, boundless substance, which is eternal and ageless, and it governs the creation and destruction of worlds.

1. Anaximenes

• Belief: Suggested that air (or ‘aer’) is the root element from which everything else originates.
• Argument: Observed that air could change forms (e.g., condensation and rarefaction) and believed that these transformations could explain the variety of substances in the world.

Pythagoras

1. Mathematics and Reality

• Belief: The universe is fundamentally composed of numbers and their relationships.
• Argument: Observed mathematical ratios in musical harmonies and astronomical phenomena, concluding that numbers underlie all reality.

1. Transmigration of Souls

• Belief: Souls are immortal and undergo a cycle of reincarnation.
• Argument: Based on mystical and religious beliefs, rather than empirical evidence.

Heraclitus

1. Constant Change

• Belief: Reality is in a state of perpetual change, symbolized by the flow of a river.
• Argument: Emphasized that the stability of objects is illusory and that everything is constantly transforming.

1. Unity of Opposites

• Belief: Opposing forces are interconnected and constantly at play, creating a dynamic equilibrium.
• Argument: Observed that natural phenomena often involve the interaction of opposites, such as fire and water, life and death.

Parmenides

1. Reality of Being

• Belief: Only ‘Being’ exists and ‘Non-Being’ is impossible.
• Argument: Used logical deductions, asserting that thinking and being are the same, and what is not (Non-Being) cannot be thought.

1. Illusion of Change

• Belief: Change and motion are illusions, as they imply the existence of ‘Non-Being’.
• Argument: Argued logically that since ‘Being’ is, it is indivisible, unchanging, and eternal.

Empedocles

1. Four Root Elements

• Belief: All matter consists of four roots – earth, air, fire, and water.
• Argument: Proposed that the diversity of nature arises from the mixing and separating of these elements.

1. Forces of Love and Strife

• Belief: Two fundamental forces, Love and Strife, cause the combination and separation of the elements.
• Argument: Suggested these forces as the driving mechanism behind creation and destruction in the universe.

Athens in Relation to Culture

1. Cultural and Philosophical Melting Pot

• Belief: Athens represented a fusion of various cultural and intellectual traditions.
• Argument: The democratic environment and cultural interactions in Athens fostered diverse philosophical ideas.

Anaxagoras

1. Role of Mind (Nous)

• Belief: A universal mind (Nous) initiates and governs the motion and order of the cosmos.
• Argument: Proposed Nous as an explanation for the initial cosmic motion and the subsequent formation of ordered structures.

1. Everything in Everything

• Belief: Everything contains a part of everything else, except Nous.
• Argument: This belief explained the transformations in nature; every substance can change into another because it already contains all other substances in some form.

The Atomists (Leucippus and Democritus)

1. Atomic Theory

• Belief: The universe is composed of indivisible atoms moving in the void.
• Argument: Explained the diversity of the world as a result of different arrangements and combinations of atoms.

1. Determinism

• Belief: All events are determined by the laws of necessity.
• Argument: Suggested that atomic motion and interaction follow predictable patterns, leading to a deterministic view of the universe.

Protagoras

1. Man as the Measure

• Belief: Each individual is the measure of their own truth and reality.
• Argument: Proposed that perceptions and beliefs are relative to each person’s experiences and conditions.
• Agnosticism about the Gods
• Belief: It is impossible to have certain knowledge about the gods.
• Argument: Based on the notion that human knowledge is limited and subjective, making it impossible to attain certain knowledge about divine matters.