Kerr, Sari Pekkala, and William R. Kerr (eds), ‘Immigration Policy Levers for US Innovation and Start-Ups’, Innovation and Public Policy (Chicago, IL, 2022; online edn, Chicago Scholarship Online, 22 Sept. 2022), https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226805597.003.0004, accessed 21 Dec. 2023.

1. Immigrant Contribution to US Innovation:
   • Immigrants are a significant part of U.S. entrepreneurship, representing about a quarter of this sector.
   • They form 14% of the U.S. workforce and about 17-18% of college graduates, with a notable presence in science and engineering: 29% of the college-educated workforce and over half of doctorate holders in these fields.
   • The higher educational attainment and focus on STEM fields explain their strong inclination towards innovation and entrepreneurship. Immigrants have also made notable contributions to scientific achievement, such as constituting a third of US-based Nobel Prize recipients.
2. Ethnic Diversity in Innovation:
   • Chinese and Indian immigrants have been pivotal in driving U.S. innovation and entrepreneurship growth.
   • A significant increase in U.S. patents was awarded to inventors of these ethnicities: from less than 3% in 1975 to over 22% in 2018. The article does not specify the exact proportion of Indian inventors within this statistic, but their combined contribution with Chinese inventors is substantial.
3. Geographical Concentration and Economic Impact:
   • Immigrant entrepreneurship shows a strong geographical concentration, notably in technology clusters such as the San Francisco Bay Area, where over half of entrepreneurs are foreign-born.
   • The article suggests that this spatial clustering is due to the presence of established tech industries and supportive ecosystems in these areas, which attract immigrant entrepreneurs.
   • Studies show that high-skilled immigration has a positive or neutral impact on local economies and does not negatively affect native innovation activities.
4. Employment and Wages:
   • Skilled immigrants earn wages comparable to similarly skilled natives.
   • Legal factors like the prevailing wage requirement for H-1B workers help maintain wage parity between immigrant and native workers.
5. Migration Pathways and Legal Framework:
   • Many skilled immigrants initially come to the U.S. for education.
   • The process for obtaining permanent residency, or green cards, is detailed, with family-based immigration being a major route.
   • Temporary visas like H-1B are often stepping stones to permanent residency, with an employer-driven system where companies apply for visas on behalf of workers.
6. H-1B Visa vs. Green Card:
   • The H-1B visa is different from a green card. The H-1B is a non-immigrant visa allowing U.S. companies to employ foreign workers in specialty occupations for a specific period. It’s typically issued for three years and can be extended. It does not provide permanent residency but can be a pathway to it.
   • The current cap on H-1B visas and potential reforms, like raising the cap or linking it to economic conditions, are topics of debate.
   • A large proportion of H-1B visas are used for computer and STEM-related occupations, with a significant number of these visas awarded to immigrants from India and China.
7. Wage Ranking and Visa Allocation:
   • Proposals to improve the H-1B program include ranking applicants by proposed wage and setting minimum salary levels to target the program towards higher-skilled positions.
8. Student Visas and Work Transitions:
   • Foreign students often face challenges transitioning from education to work, especially due to the H-1B visa lottery system.
   • Proposals for automatic permanent residency for advanced STEM degree graduates are discussed to facilitate smoother school-to-work transitions.
9. Global Trends and Policies for Attracting Immigrant Entrepreneurs:
   • Various countries, including Australia, the UK, and Canada, have introduced visas specifically for immigrant entrepreneurs, often conditional on the success of their ventures.
10. Australia’s Specific Policies:

• Australia’s approach includes specific criteria for success to grant permanent residency to immigrant entrepreneurs, such as employing locals, achieving a certain turnover, and patent filings.